Lon 24 2 REPORT ON THE SANITARY CONDITION OF THE CITY OF LONDON, FOR THE YEAR BY HENRY LETHEBY, M.B., medical officer of health for the city of london, AND PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY IN THE MEDICAL COLLEGE OF THE LONDON HOSPITAL. LONDON: m. lownds, printer, 148½, fenchurch street, city. 1857. At a Meeting of the Commissioners of Sewers of the City of London, held at the Guildhall, on Tuesday, October 27th, 1857:— The Medical Officer of Health laid before the Court his Annual Report, which was ordered to be Printed, and a Copy to be sent to every Member of this Court, and of the Court of Common Council. JOSEPH DAW, Principal Clerk. THE SANITARY CONDITION OF THE CITY OF LONDON. THE NINTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE MEDICAL OFFICER OF HEALTH. To the Honorable Commissioners of Sewers of the City of London. To day, Gentlemen, I have to report you of the Sanitary State of the City during the year which terminated at Michaelmas last. And foremost of the means employed for the purpose of elucidating this, are the several tables that relate to the mortality for the year. These have been prepared so as to illustrate the subject in various aspects. One of the tables exhibits the proportion of deaths in each of the City 6 districts during the four seasons of the year. Another informs you of the death-rate of the people at different ages, and gives you an account of the proportion of deaths from each of the most important diseases. A third indicates the comparative mortality in the City for the last nine years; and the rest are expressive of the influence of sex, occupation, and locality on the tenure of life. At first you will observe that out of the City population of nearly 130,000 souls, there died in the course of the year 2,904 persons. This is at the rate of 22.3 per 1,000 of the inhabitants, or it is one death among every 45 of the living. With one exception, this is the smallest proportion of deaths upon record. It is just 9 per cent. less than the general average, and it represents a saving of 286 lives in the course of the year. No doubt can be entertained of the cause of this; for on looking back over the death-roll of the City for the last nine years—the time during which your sanitary measures have been in operation—there will be seen a gradual falling off in the proportion of deaths, until from a yearly mortality of 3,763, it has been reduced to 2,904. This is a great result, and it will appear still greater when you notice that it has been chiefly effected in one district, namely, the Central. Here the improvement has been to the extent of 13 per cent. above the general average, and in some places 7 it has reached to 38 per cent. In the Western division of the City it has not been greater than 7 per cent., and in the Eastern it has been only 3 per cent. This tells us that there are some places where the mortality is yet high; where in fact a cloud of death is always hanging; where the vitality of the people is slowly sapped, and where disease makes easy conquest. It is not enough that these places are the continual haunts of such endemic maladies as phthisis, fever, and the other putrid class, but often they become the seats of stronger pestilence. There it is that the powers of sanitary science must be zealously applied; for it is there the very dirt ferments, and the air becomes envenomed; and yet it is still a question how these powers are to be applied, for most of the denizens of these plaguenests have but little instinct for self-improvement. If to-day you give them the appliances for cleanliness and ordinary decency, to-morrow they will abuse them, and nothing can be more disheartening than the ill success of all your efforts to improve the character of such dismal dens. And yet these efforts must still be used, and perseveringly; for bad as is the physical state of these places, the moral state is worse; and children grow up to perpetuate the vices which ignorance has engendered. That which is wanted, therefore, is some means of touching 8 the root of these evils—of teaching the poor how to value the comforts of a decent, cleanly home—of educating them in a proper spirit of independence, and of making them know how great is their power of helping themselves. When this is done, the labours of sanitary science will be comparatively easy; for then the filthy habits, the wretched squalor, and the still worse moral vileness will quickly disappear. It does not fall within my province to discuss the means of education, whereby this may be accomplished, but I cannot help saying that there seems to me to be an easy mode of doing it. Raise up but a few houses that are well adapted for the necessities of the poor, and you will soon find that they are a strong incentive to the forming of better habits, and to the seeking for better homes. The spirit of improvement which has led to the destruction of the poor man's haunts, has had but little regard for the poor man's wants; and after all, the majesty of a great city, may be but the glittering diadem upon the front of death. If it be a satisfaction to know that there are other places in a yet worse condition than this is, I can tell you, that the mortality of the whole City is much less than that of the average of large towns. Here the mortality is at the rate of 22.3 per 1,000 of the living, and in the generality of such places it is as high as 25.6. Even in all England, it is at 9 the rate of 22.8 per 1,000. But this ought not to lull us into the belief that we have reached the highest point of sanitary rule; for these numbers have but a doubtful signification. In some parts of the City the death-rate mounts to 27 per 1,000, and I should ill perform my duty if I masked this fact, or left it without a comment. And now let us see what has been the influence of age on the City mortality, and what the proportion of deaths at each of the several epochs of life. You will notice in the second table, that of the 2,904 deaths for the year, 1,163 occurred among infants of less than five years of age, 193 between the ages of five and twenty, 391 between twenty and forty, 522 between forty and sixty, 549 between sixty and eighty, and only 86 after the fifth epoch of life. Of 1,000 persons, therefore, who died last year in the City, 400 did not reach the fifth year of their age, 466 died before reaching the twentieth year, 601 before the third epoch, 781 before the fourth, 970 before the fifth, and only 30 were left to struggle on to the sixth epoch. As in the vision of Mirza, therefore, we can see the bridge of human life, with its hundred arches, that spans the City. We can also see multitudes of people struggling to pass over it, and, as we look more attentively, we may see the passengers 10 ping through the traps and pitfalls of the bridge into the great tide that flows beneath. But faster than in the dream of Mirza is the falling through of the crowd that struggles to pass over, for thicker and closer are the hidden traps and pitfalls that beset the way. Of the thousands who emerge from the dark cloud that hangs about the bridge's entrance, only one or two will reach to the hundredth arch; more than a third of them will have dropped through before they have traversed the twentieth part of the way; more than half before they have got to the summit of the thirtieth arch; and by the time the remnant of the crowd has reached to the middle of the bridge, there will be but three-tenths of all the number tottering on. In the fourth table of the Appendix I have endeavoured to represent these facts more clearly than I can describe them. There you will see that the mortality of young children is as high as 435 per 1,000 of all the deaths, or 93 per 1,000 of the living. In the West London Union it is 363 per 1,000 of the deaths, or 101 per 1,000 of the living; and in the City Union, it is 327 per 1,000 of the deaths, or 64.5 of the living. In all England it is 398 per 1,000 of the deaths, or 73.6 per 1,000 of the living; and in France it is just 80 per 1,000 of the living. The proportion of deaths at other ages are shown in the fifth table of the Appendix; and the general results are that in all cases, except from ten to thirty-five 11 years of age, the proportion of deaths in the City is much larger than in the rest of England. Between those ages the advantages are greatly in favour of a City life. As to the influence of occupation on the mortality, I may remind you of what was said in my last Report, for the experience of another year has only confirmed the former observations. Taking the mortality of the two years, the following are the results:—of all males at twenty years of age and upwards in the City of London, the deaths per 1,000 are 22.5; but the different classes of society have contributed very unequally to the aggregate; for butchers, poulterers, and fishmongers, shopkeepers, and merchants have died at the rate of only from fifteen to sixteen in the 1,000; while tailors and weavers, shoemakers, printers, and compositors, have succumbed at the rate of from twenty to twenty-three per 1,000; wine-merchants, publicans and waiters, porters and messengers, at the rate of from twenty-four to twenty-six per 1,000; blacksmiths and gasfitters, painters and glaziers, dyers, bargemen and watermen, at from twenty-eight to thirty in the 1,000; cabmen, draymen, ostlers, carmen, and stable-keepers at the rate of thirty-one in the 1,000; clerks, bakers, and needlewomen, at from thirty-four to thirty-five in the 1,000; and lastly, the harder working classes of carpenters, masons, and 12 labourers at from forty-three to forty-five in the 1,000. These figures may not be expressive of the exact influence of occupation on mortality, because it is impossible to eliminate all sources of error; but they represent nearly enough the general fact, that there is a great difference in the vitality of the several classes; for the well-fed butcher and the prosperous merchant die in far less proportion than do those who are more exposed to the rough usages of life; and then again there seems to be something about the closer occupation of clerks and needlewomen that makes them especially susceptible of disease. If we turn to the other modes of testing this matter, we shall find that, while in all London the mean age at death among adidt males is a little less than fifty-one years, each class has its own particular longevity. The merchant, shop-keeper, and domestic servant will live to be nearly fifty-seven years of age; the butcher, poulterer, and fishmonger to be about fifty-three. Most of the other classes will reach to the age of from fifty to fifty-two; though the painter and dyer, the costermonger and hawker, the bargeman and waterman, survive only to from forty-eight to forty-nine; and lastly, the printer and compositor lives to but forty-five, and the baker and confectioner to only forty-two. Anions females the differences of occupation are 13 not so striking, except in the case of the wives of cabmen and publicans, where instead of living to the mean age of fifty-five, they die at forty-nine; and the poor needlewoman sinks into the grave at the average age of forty. The mean age at death of adult males in the City is fifty-one and of females fifty-five. In all England it is sixty and sixty-one; so that in one case about nine years is taken from the life-time, and in the other about six. And again, if we examine the longevity of adults at other ages, it will be seen that the contrast is equally great. At forty-five and upwards the mean age at death of the male citizen is sixty-two, and of the female sixtyfive. In all England it is sixty-eight and sixty-nine. At the age of sixty-five a man with us may expect to live to the seventy-second year, and a woman to the seventy-fifth, but in the whole of England the expectancy is to the seventy-sixth and seventyseventh. These are the numerical exponents of the strain upon a City life, and they testify of the penalties that are paid to excessive civilization. The records of the last nine years tell us of the diseases which have contributed to these results. There it is written that of every 1,000 deaths, consumption has been fatal in 212, fever in fortysix, others of the zymotic class in 125, diarrhoea in forty, convulsions and teething in fifty-six, and 14 pneumonia and bronchitis in 151. As usual, the three City Unions have furnished very unequal proportions. The East London Union has been most prolific of zymotic maladies—in the proportion of 225 to 158, which is the amount of the Central City district. In the Western Union, consumption lias killed 247 of the 1,000, and in the City only 191; and lastly, bronchitis and pneumonia have been fatal in 174 cases per 1,000 in the Eastern district, and only in 139 in the Central. As compared with England, the chief differences in the causes of death are the amounts of tubercular disease, especially of infants; for while tabes, scrofula, and hydrocephalus are fatal with us to the extent of ninety-five in the 1,000, in all England the number is but thirty-six in the 1,000. Now as these diseases are mostly occasioned by domestic vices, it may be said that one of the great causes of the high mortality of children in the City of London is the unwholesome state of their homes. This I have endeavoured to illustrate in the eighth table of the Appendix, where I have classified the deaths from diiferent diseases under the heads of the several trades. From that table it would appear that each class of persons had its own prevailing malady. Phthisis seems to be the chief disease of needlewomen, printers, bakers, cabmen, and policemen; fever prevails most among domestic servants, needlewomen, and cabmen; bronchitis and pneumonia among labourers, painters, butchers, 15 mongers, and hawkers; brain diseases among porters, publicans, watermen, and bargemen; and liver diseases are the especial attribute of the publican. There is a significance in all this, for it points to the peculiar habits of the different classes, and indicates how much might be effected by prudence and self-controul. And now it is time that I should inform you of what has been done in the course of the year for the sanitary improvement of the City. Your Inspectors have furnished me with returns of the state of 5,294 houses; and 2,131 orders have been issued for various sanitary improvements. 1 have also received from your Inspectors, detailed accounts of the state of 4,718 rooms, each of which has been carefully measured, and circumstantially described in respect of its cleanliness, state of repair, rental, and the number and condition of its occupants. I have thus obtained a body of information, which will, I trust, enable me to meet some of the untoward circumstances to which I have so frequently alluded. These rooms were tenanted by 3,785 families, consisting of 3,413 males, 3,677 females, and 6,187 children: in all 13,277 persons. In 125 of these rooms I have found 624 persons: namely, 187 men, 244 women, and 193 children. Already I have described the manner in which these people have been distributed. In forty-seven cases there were two women and 16 one man, with their children living in the same room; in ten cases three women and one man; and three cases of four women and one man. In twenty-one cases there were two men and one woman; twenty-seven of two men and two women; four of two men and three women; three of three men and one woman; one of two men and four women; and one of three men and three women. I have not complicated this general summary by giving you an account of the number of children in each of the rooms, but it has been a rare case not to find one or more. Certificates have been issued of the indecent over-crowding of these rooms, and I hope soon to have them all registered upon your books as Common Lodging-houses; when this is accomplished, and your Inspector of Lodging-houses is appointed, you will have the means, through the salutary powers of your Act of 1851, of putting a check on the unwholesome practices of such places. Among other sanitary proceedings of the year, have been the abating of many trade nuisances; and, except in two cases, this has always been accomplished without interfering with the progress of industry or the concerns of commerce. This, indeed, has always been my aim; for it is impossible to disregard the fact, that the wealth and commercial importance of this great City have been mainly derived from a free and unfettered 17 exercise of trade, and it would be rashness to use the functions of my office in such a way as to put an unnecessary check upon its progress. Those who imagine that the sanitary condition of the country would be improved by a meddlesome interference with the industrial operations of it, have taken a very narrow view of the great cause of the evil they would remedy. The high mortality of large towns, and the frequent spread of epidemic diseases, are caused not so much by the unrestricted exercise of trade as by the habits of the people. The mischief lies not so much in the workshop, as in the workman's home; and I would rather raise the vitality of the people to a standard of health that will enable them to resist the offensive influences of trade, than I would lower the energies of commerce to meet the requirements of a low vitality. Where would have been the now flourishing trades of Birmingham and Manchester and Sheffield, and the hundred other busy centres of industry, whose commerce is the glory of England, if those trades had been harassed by a mischievous sentimentalism, and fettered by the fantastic rules of a visionary system of hygiene. In fact, the history of manufactures in this country is not merely a history of the successful application of science to art, and of the profitable employment of waste products; nor is it a history of the development of industry through the fostering care of a paternal government, for happily for us they have had no such assistance. It is rather 18 a history of the progress of unfettered enterprise; of the way in which competitive skill has advanced trade to the highest pitch of excellence. And, after all, where is the proof that this uncontrolled liberty of action has had any injurious influence on the public health. Early records inform us that the life-time of the people has never been so long as it is now. In 1690, according to Mr. Finlaison, the expectancy of a man's life at the age of thirty was only to about fifty-six; at the present time it is to sixty-three. Surely this does not show that the rapid progress of manufactures has done any injury to the public health, it rather shows that with the increase of trade, and the larger employment of industry, there have come better means for the preservation of health and the prolongation of life. I am far from saying in all this, that there are no occasions for interference with the methods of trade and manufacture. It may be that this very freedom in the exercise of industry, when uncontrolled by science, does sometimes produce, what may be called an exuberance of growth, that requires trimming and keeping in order. Here it is that the powers of local authorities can be usefully employed; for when a manufacturer so conducts his processes as to let loose into the air and soil, a large portion of his property as waste products, he is not merely doing an injury to his neighbours, but he is also acting imprudently to himself; in fact, 19 to allow property to pass from the domain of art into that of nature, is, for a time, to lose command over it. That which has been done, therefore, in the City has been merely the checking of such waste, and the suggesting of better modes for the management of business. A word or two more and I shall have done. In the course of the year the medical officers of the City Unions have attended 14,046 cases of disease among the poor. Of these, 1,099 were cases of fever, 1,434 of diarrhœa, and 48 of English cholera. Each of these 2,581 cases have been separately inquired into, and many of the sanitary orders issued during the year have had reference to them. It might perhaps be thought that at this juncture of an expected visitation of cholera, I ought to report to you of the state of our defences, and of the manner in which an attack is to be met. I do not, however, think that the signs of its approach are so portent as to call for unnecessary excitement or alarm; and even if they were, I do not know that I could put the defences into a better condition, for it has been my aim to keep them always in order. It may be that these defences are not impregnable, but I trust that the sanitary measures which have been enforced for the last nine years, and which are now in active operation, will serve to fortify us as strongly as possible against the approach 20 of the malady. Where such measures have not been duly employed, it is right that notice should be taken of the slightest sign of the approach of the disease, and the warning turned to account. The Board of Health has therefore done well to urge the importance of this matter on public attention, and to point out the means whereby the force of the coming evil may be abated. To all I would say, that the most powerful means of repelling the disease are prudence and cleanliness. Avoid all those circumstances which lower the vital powers, and remove the putrid filth that gives the malady a footing. If I were to write an essay on the subject I could tell you no more. One thing, however, I would urge upon the attention of the parish authorities: it is that they should be ready for the appointment of a house to house visitation, under the direction of their district medical officers, directly the first signs of the disease are with us, for experience has shown that the diarrhœa which precedes an attack of cholera is mostly susceptible of cure. I have the honour, Gentlemen, To remain your obedient Servant, HENRY LETHEBY, M.B. Guildhall, October 21th, 1857. APPENDIX. No. I.-Ninth Annual Enumeration of Deaths, relating to the fifty-two weeks dating from September 28th, 1856, to September 26th, 1857. East London Union. West London Union. City or London Union. Deaths in the four quarters terminating as follows:- I. In the quarter end- ing Dec. 27th 696 Saint Botolph. Cripplegate. Workhouses. t North. South. Workhouse. S. W. N. W. South. S. E. n. e. Workhouse. M. F. 70 46 M. F. 66 55 M. F. 19 19 M. F. 36 28 M. F. 44 58 M. F. 10 15 M. F. 18 13 31 M. F. 17 11 M.F 25 17 M. F. 27 20 M. F. 35 22 M. F. 9 16 116 121 38 64 102 25 28 42 47 57 25 II. In the quarter end- ing March 28th 852 73 78 68 63 38 30 30 24 52 46 34 22 26 26 13 22 38 27 33 18 21 28 14 28 151 131 68 54 98 56 52 35 65 51 49 42 III. In the quarter ending June 27th 684 65 52 62 55 17 14 30 27 47 40 19 16 15 19 12 11 23 16 19 27 36 23 23 16 117 117 31 57 87 35 34 23 39 46 59 39 IV. In the quarter ending Sept. 26th 58 54 49 71 10 18 27 33 51 37 13 14 18 30 11 18 20 19 25 14 32 21 14 15 112 120 28 60 88 27 48 29 39 39 53 29 Sum of the four quarters 29041 266 230 245 244 84 81 123 112 194 181 76 67 77 88 53 62 106 79 104 79 124 94 60 75 496 489 165 235 375 143 165 115 185 183 218 135 1150 753 1001 Total Number of Deaths for the Year 2904 No.II.-Classification of the 2,904 Deaths, which occurred in the fifty-two weeks dating from September 28th, 1856, to September 26th, 1857. Total Number of Deaths. AT WHAT AGES? FROM WHAT CAUSES? 0 to 5 5 to 10 10 to 15 15 to 20 20 to 30 30 to 40 40 to 50 50 to 60 60 to 70 70 and over. Violence, Privation, Poison, and Premature Birth. Fever. Acute Diarrhœa (not of infants), Dysentery, and Cholera. Scarlet-Fever and Cynanche | Maligna. Small-Pox. Phthisis and other Tubercular Diseases. Erysipelas, Puerperal Fever, and Phlebitis. Diarrhœa, Bronchitis, and Pneumonia of infants under 3 years of age. Measles, Hooping-cough. and Croup. Hydrocephalus, Teething, & Convulsions of Infancy. Other Diseases, chiefly chronic. East London Union 1150 512 37 15 23 54 86 88 91 115 129 48 43 20 28 8 222 6 149 69 117 440 West London Union 753 295 24 9 10 47 69 55 88 93 63 49 32 10 15 4 164 9 74 60 52 284 City of London Union 1001 356 33 17 25 50 85 95 105 104 131 78 34 8 22 2 163 5 87 83 85 434 Entire City 2904 1163 94 41 58 151 240 238 284 312 323 175 109 38 65 14 549 20 310 212 254 1158 Average of the last Eight Years 3155 1188 130 57 71 199 250 285 293 316 366 140 * 142 167 107 37 490 * 27 290 190 273 1292 * These are the numbers of last year, as there is no record of the deaths from Violence, &c., and from Tubercular disease, in the preceeding seven years. No. III.—Mortality in the City of London during Nine Years, namely from Michaelmas 1848, to Michaelmas 1857. Entire City. East London Union. West London Union. City of London Union. Saint Botolph. Cripplegate. Workhouses. North. South. Workhouse. s. w. N. W. South. S. E. N. E. Workhouse. 1848-49 3763 519 574 179 372 598 126 293 245 263 214 262 103 Mortality from Michaelmas to Michaelmas. 1849-50 2752 396 444 125 324 290 108 176 168 218 183 219 101 1850-51 2978 493 471 167 317 313 68 191 169 258 217 213 101 1851-52 3064 534 460 176 266 379 129 196 198 203 171 235 117 1852-53 3040 516 534 155 289 309 164 170 188 223 164 224 104 1853-54 3335 577 539 198 284 367 152 210 189 184 215 272 148 1854-55 3400 595 606 202 273 365 161 167 171 211 232 259 158 1855-56 2910 443 507 176 247 402 147 147 167 186 135 220 133 AVERAGE 3155 509 517 172 296 378 132 194 187 218 191 238 121 1198 806 1149 1856—57 2904 496 489 165 235 375 143 165 115 185 183 218 135 1150 753 1001 No. IV.—Proportion of Deaths per 1,000 at each Interval of Age, from 0 to 100, in the City Districts, in the Metropolis, in England, and in the Country. Intervals of Age. Proportions in a 1,000 Deaths at each Interval of Age. East London Union. West London Union. City of London Union. Entire City. Metropolis. England. Country. 0 to 5 435 363 327 377 317 258 208 5 to 10 41 40 40 41 48 36 59 10 to 20 34 45 47 41 42 45 50 20 to 30 60 70 61 63 55 57 54 30 to 40 71 90 80 80 75 65 64 40 to 50 85 94 94 90 96 72 81 50 to 60 77 98 106 93 129 86 117 60 to 70 93 100 107 100 133 135 167 70 to 80 73 81 92 83 87 152 155 80 to 90 28 17 44 30 17 83 44 90 to 100 3 2 2 2 1 11 1 This Table is deduced from the returns of the last nine years for the City of London, and from the Life Tables in the 5th and 6th Annual Reports of the Registrar General. The Table may be read thus:—Of 1,000 Persons dying in East London Union 435 died between the Ages of 0 to 5; forty-one from 5 to 10; thirty-four from 10 to 20; and so on. No. V.—Annual Mortality per 1,000 of Males and Females at Different Ages in the City Districts, compared with that of England and France for 10 Years. Deaths per 1,000 Living at each Period. All Ages. 0 to 5 5, to 10 10 to 15 15 to 25 25 to 35 35 to 45 45 to 55 55 to 65 65 to 75 75 to 85 85 to 95 Males. East London Union 1856 27.0 94.7 12.7 2.8 4.7 11.3 14.4 35.8 39.9 115.9 200.0 727.2 1857 27.6 99.6 8.6 4.6 3.8 9.2 20.1 26.4 58.4 120.4 227.3 181.8 West London Union 1856 28.3 112.0 10.3 2.4 7.1 14.6 20.3 27.3 53.2 88.6 108.1 1857 26.9 99.0 10.3 3.2 4.3 15.0 17.9 25.9 57.0 105.2 166.7 111.1 City of London Union 1856 19.2 69.0 8.2 2.7 4.2 6.7 15.5 21.7 49.8 87.6 190.1 200.0 1857 19.3 69.4 7.3 4.7 3.8 7.8 17.5 21.3 45.2 66.1 239.4 266.7 Entire City 1856 24.0 88.8 10.4 2.6 5.0 10.2 16.3 27.8 47.4 96.7 133.8 214.3 1857 23.8 87.9 8.5 4.4 3.9 10.0 18.4 24.1 52.5 93.1 160 0 200.0 England. 1845-54 23.6 73 6 9.2 5.2 8.3 10.2 13.1 18.9 32.3 67.6 149.9 327.8 France, 1840-49 23 8 84.5 10.5 5.4 10.3 10.0 11.0 14.8 29.2 60.7 161.7 320.3 Females. East London Union 1856 23.7 83.9 8.9 2.5 6.0 8.3 15.7 14.6 50.0 54.1 206.2 400.0 1857 24.3 94.4 7.1 2.5 7.1 6.8 12.3 16.6 38.7 80.5 185.5 371.4 West London Union 1856 26.9 96.4 13.3 3.2 4.5 10.7 18.1 20.3 51.1 91.0 205.6 461.5 1857 25.3 97.8 8.6 4.0 5.5 7.3 16.1 23.9 63.6 78.0 120.5 77.0 City of London Union 1856 16.2 54.4 6.0 3.5 4.2 6.2 9.0 16.7 30.3 68.5 146.4 393.9 1857 16.6 65.2 7.3 1.3 3.4 4.7 8.7 12.3 35.0 57.2 209.2 272.7 Entire City 1856 21.1 74.9 8.7 3.1 4.8 7.8 13.3 16.8 41.6 69.2 181.1 407.4 1857 21.1 83.6 7.5 2.3 5.0 6.0 11.6 16.3 42.4 70.2 179.4 307.4 England, 1845-54 22.1 63.4 8.9 5.5 8.6 10.8 12.9 16.2 28.6 61.0 136.5 280.8 France, 1840—49 23 .2 75.4 11.0 6.4 8.4 9.7 11.0 14.9 27.3 63.5 144.8 271.9 Note.—The Table may be read thus:—Of 1,000 Males living in the East London Union in 1856, 27.0 died. Of 1,000 Males at from 0 to 5 Years of Age, 94.7 died ; and so on. No. VI.—The Deaths in the City of London, from Michaelmas 1855, to Michaelmas 1857, Classified according to the principal Occupations, with the Mean Age at Death from 20 and upwards; and the Deaths per 1,000 per Annum of Adult Males of each Class. CLASSES OR OCCUPATIONS. Number of Deaths in the Two Years. Mean Age at Death. Deaths of Males over 20 per 1000. At all Ages. Under 20. 20 and over. At 20 and over. At 45 and over. At 65 and over. M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. Merchants, Shop-keepers, and Agents 750 191 168 205 186 56.6 55.9 64.0 65.9 71.9 74.1 16.4 Domestic Servants and Nurses 192 24 28 11 129 57.6 51.7 62.9 66.7 72.5 74.5 7.0 Clerks, Accountants, Solicitors, &c. 396 65 56 176 99 53.7 56.9 64.6 65.4 73.3 74.5 34.0 Butchers, Poulterers, Fishmongers, &c. 115 23 23 31 38 53.0 56.4 61.4 63.8 67.8 72.3 14.5 Porters, messengers, Packers, &c. 546 131 118 186 111 51.3 53.5 62.6 62.1 73. 5 74.4 26.0 Bricklayers, Masons, Laborers, &c.. 659 171 156 220 112 51.9 56.8 62.7 65.9 73.0 77.0 45.0 Shoe.makers, Saddlers, Harness-makers 383 113 86 95 89 51.8 56.7 61.0 65.4 72.7 74.2 20.6 Tailors and Weavers 396 119 109 86 82 51.4 56.2 60.2 68.3 71.9 79.3 21.4 Blacksmiths, Gunsmiths, Gas.fitters, &c. 215 48 49 72 46 50.8 52.3 59.7 61.1 72.7 73.5 28.4 Carpenters, Turners, Cork-cutters, &c. 390 102 94 110 84 51.5 55.1 59.4 65.0 72.0 74.7 43.5 Cabmen, Ostlers, Draymen, Carmen, &c. 272 72 75 78 47 50.3 491 58.1 59.5 74.0 71.5 31.5 Wine.merchants, Publicans, Waiters 195 44 26 84 41 50.2 49.6 590 59.6 71.1 74.0 24.5 Painters, Glaziers, Dyers, &c. 138 44 25 40 29 48.7 61.7 60.8 67.0 70.0 73.1 30.2 Waterman, Bargemen, Sailors, &c. 111 16 15 42 38 48.8 60.6 59.9 65.3 73.9 77.0 29.0 Soldiers, Police, Firemen. Beadles 174 50 45 39 40 48.6 50.7 59.5 62.7 70.4 74.9 35.1 Costermongers and Hawers 89 15 16 35 23 48.2 60.6 610 66.5 72.3 74.1 ? Printers and Compositors 187 48 62 42 34 44.7 52.1 56.7 62.3 68.8 73.0 23. 2 Bakers, Confectioners, &c. 80 20 23 22 15 42.3 53.3 56.1 61.3 72 .0 74.5 35.1 Needlewomen 179 71 46 •• 62 •• 40.4 •• 62.4 •• 71.5 35.2 All Classes in the City 5814 1415 1264 1616 1519 50.6 55.2 61.7 65.4 72.3 74.6 22.5 All Classes in England .. •• .. .. .. 59.9 60.8 68.3 69.4 75.9 76.5 20.0 No. VII.—Annual Proportion of Deaths in each of the City Districts, and in England, from Zymotic, Tubercular, and other Diseases. Causes op Death. Deaths to 10,000 Persons Living. Proportions to 1,000 Deaths. East Union. West Union. City Union, Entire City. England. East Union. West Union. City Union. Entire City. England. All Causes. 255.2 270.8 175.3 223.6 226.6 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 Zymotic Diseases 57.4 60.3 27.7 45.0 45.7 225.0 222.7 157.8 201.4 201.5 Small-pox 2.6 2.4 0.9 1.8 1.4 10.1 9.0 5.0 8.1 6.0 Measles 5.4 7.0 3.2 4.8 4.0 21.1 25.9 18.1 21.3 17.5 Scarlet-fever 10.4 9.3 4.1 7.5 9.3 40.8 36.3 24.6 33.5 41.2 Hooping-cough and Croup 11.2 12.7 8.0 10.1 7.9 43.9 47.1 45.7 45.4 34.8 Doarrhœa. &c. 12.4 10.8 5.3 9.0 8.1 48.7 40.0 30.2 40.0 35.8 Typhus 14.0 14.5 5.3 10.3 8.6 54.9 53.6 30.2 46.1 38.2 Tubercular Diseases 52.6 66.7 33.3 47.3 36.4 205.8 246.6 191.1 211.5 160.8 Phthisis 26.6 37.9 19.6 26.0 28.2 104.0 140.1 112.1 116.1 124.6 Tabes and Scrofula 17.9 20.0 8.1 14.0 4.2 70.3 71.0 46.2 62.3 18.5 Hydrocephalus 8.0 10.0 5.7 7.3 4.0 31.6 34.2 32.7 32.6 17.8 Convulsions and Teething 16.7 14.5 9.3 12.6 15.6 65.5 47.0 53.5 56.4 69.0 Pneumonia and Bronchitis 44.4 35.4 24.3 33.6 28.7 173.9 131.0 138.7 150.5 126.8 The City Returns are the Average of the Years 1856 and 1857. The Returns of England are for the Year 1855. No. VIII.— The proportions of Deaths per 1,000 from some of the most important Diseases among the Children and, Adults of the different classes. CLASSES OR OCCUPATIONS. CAUSES OF DEATH PER 1,000 OF THE DEATHS. Among Children under 15. Among Persons of 15 Years of age and upwards. Fever. Tabes & Scrofula. Pneumonia & Bronchitis. Diarrhea. Convulsions & Teething. Zymotic Diseases. Fever, Phthisis. Pneumonia and Bronchitis. Diarrhoea. Brain Disease. Heart Disease. M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F- M. F. Merchants, Shop-keepers, &c. 28.8 158.5 141.2 46.1 175.8 265.1 54.0 26.2 216.1 136.1 139.7 172.7 4.5 5.9 81.0 89.0 72.0 46.9 Servants and Nurses 58.8 500 .0 147.0 117.6 206.0 176.5 .. 148.9 .. 127.7 .. 134.7 .. 21.2 .. 49.6 .. 71.0 Clerks, Accountants, &c 18.0 171.1 162.1 27.0 306.3 200.0 60.1 0.0 202.2 166.0 131.1 196.0 21.8 9.8 125.6 88.2 76.6 49.0 Butchers, Poulterers, &c Porters, Messengers, &c 22.7 24.3 113.6 142.2 204.5 178.9 0.0 53.0 227.2 194.3 318.4 187.0 62.5 26.6 61.3 17.8 281.5 207.5 76.9 142.8 156.4 133.0 179.4 161.6 0.0 21.3 25.6 26.8 187.7 53.2 179.4 116.1 0.0 58.5 76.9 26.8 Bricklayers, Masons, &c 18.8 195.0 125.8 78.6 191.5 261.0 57.5 52.1 177.0 19.3 239.0 208.7 22.1 26.1 79.6 69.5 26.5 87.0 Shoemakers, Furriers, &c. 15.6 208.3 145.8 72.9 177.1 250.0 91.8 53.7 214.2 182.8 183.7 118.2 20.4 0.0 40.8 75.2 40.8 64.5 Tailors, Weavers, &c 35.4 168.1 194.7 57.4 225.6 190.2 80.0 73.1 216.0 219.5 261.3 195.1 45.5 24.4 56.8 48.8 90.9 12.2 Blacksmiths, &c 10.7 139.8 193.5 75.2 204.3 268.8 40.5 41.7 216.2 146.0 108.1 166.7 13.5 20.8 67.6 62.5 40.5 41.7 Carpenters, Turners, &c. 52.6 163.2 168.4 73.7 205.3 226.0 52.6 46.5 272.0 139.6 201.7 221.0 52.6 11.6 61.4 34.9 35.1 46.5 Cahrnen, Ostlers, &c 85.1 156.0 156.0 50.0 177.3 255.3 49.4 100.0 247.0 300.0 185.2 160.0 0.0 0.0 98.8 40.0 86.4 100.0 Pubticans, Wine-mrchnts., &e. 0.0 125.0 93.7 93.7 250.0 171.7 22.5 23.8 236.0 238.1 67.2 142.8 11.2 0.0 191.0 95.2 67.2 142.8 Painters, Glaziers, &c 30.0 179.1 164.1 44.7 224.0 244.0 73.1 33.3 146.3 100.0 244.0 200.0 24.4 66.7 73.1 100.0 24.4 33.3 Watermen, &c 66.7 233.3 66.7 133.3 200.0 100.0 47.6 77.0 238.0 102.5 142.8 154.0 23.8 0.0 95.2 179.5 47.6 25.6 Soldiers, Police, &c. 40.5 67.7 216.2 135.0 216.2 364.8 17.0 48.8 220.3 268.3 85.0 122.0 17.0 48.8 51.0 48.8 34.0 48.8 Costermongers, Hawkers, &c. 33.3 266.7 100.0 33.3 200.0 266.7 28.6 41.7 342.9 83.0 171.4 271.8 28.6 0.0 28.6 83.4 28.6 0.0 Printers and Compositors 27.8 138.8 185.2 92.6 176.0 240.7 0.0 57.1 377.8 257.1 155. 6 100.0 44.4 0.0 66.7 85.5 22.2 143.0 Bakers, Confectioners, &c. 24.4 97.5 122.0 122.0 170.7 317.0 45.4 36.0 227.3 294.1 227.3 294.1 90.9 0.0 0.0 176.4 45. 4 0.0 Needlewomen 48.8 244.3 183.0 85.3 231.7 97.5 .. 144.6 .. 385.6 .. 84 .3 .. 0.0 .. 108.4 .. 108.4 All Classes 31.2 170.6 158.7 66.4 202.2 233.4 49.5 58.5 219.8 174.3 163.6 169.4 21 .7 17.4 81.5 82-8 51-9 60.0 Note.—While 37 is the average number for Liver Diseases among all c lasses of Males—in the case of Publicans it is 101, and of their Wives it is 71, as against 43, which is the average per 1,000 of Females. No. IX.— Summary of the Sanitary Work done in each of the City Districts during the Year. Inspectors. City Districts. No. of Houses in Districts. Houses Inspected. Orders Issued. Number of Rooms Measured, & Number of Occupants. Rooms. Men. Women. Children. Total Occupants. Families. Rooms overcrowded William Ternouth North-west 1472 996 238 738 804 591 844 2239 750 31 John Painter South-west 1037 871 316 968 627 751 1357 2735 784 14 John Thomas Hopkinson North-middle 1389 1089 582 639 465 548 930 1943 523 14 George Mortimer South-middle 262 232 110 660 348 387 729 1464 400 3 James Williams North-east 1758 1443 494 1111 806 981 1661 3448 932 57 William Santler South-east 736 663 391 602 363 419 666 1448 396 6 Totals .... 6654 5294 2131 4718 3413 3677 6187 13277 3785 12b* * These 125 Rooms were occupied by 624 persons, viz.:—187 Men, 244 Women, and 193 Children; and the Rental was from Is. 3d. to 3s. 6d. per Week, per Room. Total Number of Houses Inspected, 5,294. Total Number of Sanitary Orders, 2,131. No. X.—Meteorology of the City of London for each Month in the Year, from Observations made at the Engineer's Office, Guildhall, under the direction of Mr. Haywood. MONTHS. 1856-7. Barometer. Dry Thermometer. Wet Thermometer or Hygrometer. Rain Gauges. Mean Pressure. Highest ditto. Lowest ditto. Mean Temperature. Highest ditto. Lowest ditto. Mean Daily Range. Mean Temperature. Dew Point. Degree of Humidity. Weight of vapor ill cubic foot of air. Vapor required to saturate do. Total Fall in Inches. Greatest Fall in Inches. Lowest Fall in Inches. Wet Bulb. Dry Bulb. On Roof. On Ground. On Roof. On Ground. On Roof. On Ground. Deg. Deg. Deg. Deg. Deg. Deg. Deg. Deg. Grains. Grains. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. October 30.10 30.8 29.58 53.1 65.0 49.0 9.2 51.0 53.8 4a.7 0.81 3.9 0.8 1.55 1.63 0.30 0.30 0.03 0.04 November 30.01 30.66 29.41 42.8 55.0 26.0 9.3 41.4 43.4 39.0 0.84 2.8 0.5 1.27 1.35 0.44 0.45 0.01 0.01 December 29.80 30.63 28.89 43.1 59.0 25.0 10.8 40.8 45.2 35.8 0.70 2.4 0.9 1.61 1.77 0.46 O.53 0.01 0.01 January 29.79 30.40 29.13 38.4 51.0 19.0 9.5 37 .6 39.2 35.8 0.87 2.4 0 .4 2.63 2.72 0.75 0.75 0.02 0.02 February 30.04 30.57 29.66 38.9 52.0 27.0 7.2 39.6 41.2 37.8 0.88 2.6 0.4 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.01 0.01 March 29.84 30 .55 29.13 42.8 62.0 31.0 11.9 40.3 43.1 37.0 0.79 2.4 0.5 0.83 0.89 0.21 0.23 0.01 0.01 April 2./6 30.33 29.99 46.1 66.5 35.0 12.4 43.4 46.0 40.4 0.82 2.9 0.7 1.28 1.39 0.40 0.46 0.02 0.02 Mav 29.90 30.29 29.46 53.8 74.0 29.5 15.9 49.1 53.8 44.5 0.75 3.3 0.9 0.52 0.58 0.30 0.33 0.02 0.02 June 29.97 30.45 29.59 61.7 86.0 46.0 18.1 55.5 61.7 50.2 0.72 4.1 2.1 1.73 1.88 0.70 0.74 0.04 0.05 Julv 29.76 30.41 29.72 64.7 81.0 50.5 15.8 59.0 65.0 54.1 0.68 4.6 2.2 1.62 1.64 0.60 0.61 0.01 0.01 August 29.96 30.39 29.71 64.8 84.0 53.0 14.9 60.2 64.6 56.6 0.75 5.0 1.7 3.95 4.05 1.12 1.15 0.01 0.01 September 29.87 30.44 29.48 60.3 75.5 50.0 11.4 57.3 60.3 54.7 0.82 4.8 1.0 3.12 3.21 0.63 0.65 0.01 0.01 Barometer. The highest readings were on October 25, November 7, December 16, January 8, February 28, March 2, April 21, May 5, 6, June 25, July 13 August 27, September 19 The lowest readings were on October 15, November 11, December 26, January 24. February 9, March 14, April 13, May 2b' June 10, July 6, August 7, September 8. temperature.— The highest were October 4, November 22, 24, 25, December 7, January 1, February 1G, 18, 22, 23, March 18, April 18,19, May 18, 19, June 28 July 14, 15, 24. 25, August 3, September 17. The lowest were October 28, 29, November 29, December 2, January 31, February 4. March 10, 12, 23, April 24, May 5, June 1, July 8, August 10, September 29. Rain. The greatest fall on October 11, November 26, December 13, January 10, February 10, March 16, April 6, May 23, June 20, July 2, August 15 September 9. The least fall on October 7, November 17, December 15, January 19, February 26, March 26, April 1, 2, May 1, 13, June 4 30 Julv 23' August 13, 20, September 29. ' ' ' Electricity.— Positive generally throughout the year. None in the months of January, February, and March.